Does social status matter for resource distribution? / A hierarquia social é importante para a distribuição dos recursos? / ¿La jerarquía social es importante para la distribución de los recursos?

Abstract Resources are distributed unequally depending on the social status (SS) of people. Researchers have often used experiments to explain the role of SS in economic decisions. However, the diverse ways of inducing SS has produced contradictory results. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of SS on the distribution of monetary resources in students aged 18 to 25 years from Córdoba (Argentina). Three experiments using mixed factorial designs were conducted. Different ways of inducing SS and the effect on decisions in different games were examined. In Experiment 1, the effect of two SS induction techniques on the decisions of the Ultimatum Game (UG) and Dictator Game (DG) was compared. In Experiment 2, the effect of SS on the same games, including Social Value Orientation (SVO) and Subjective Social Status (SSS) as covariates was analyzed. In Experiment 3, the role of SS, SVO and SSS in the DG and the Dictator Game Taking (DGT) was examined. In the three experiments, it was not found that SS had any effect on the decisions of the games. However, more rejection and negative valence was observed (Exp. 1: p < .001, n 2 p =.72; Exp. 2: p < .001, n 2 p = .65) for unfair offers than for fair ones (Exp. 2: p < .001). Also, pro-social individuals made fairer offers in the DG (Exp. 2: p < .05) and participants offered more money in the DGT than in the DG (Exp. 3: p = .01). Those findings showed that the effect of SS on behavioral responses is not robust, which highlights the need to obtain new experimental evidence to investigate its role in those decisions.

Resumo Os recursos são normalmente distribuídos de maneira desigual em função do status social (SS) das pessoas, razão pela qual diversos pesquisadores utilizam experimentos para explicar o papel do SS nas decisões econômicas. No entanto, as diversas formas de induzir o SS geraram resultados contraditórios. No presente trabalho, investigou-se o efeito do SS na distribuição dos recursos monetários em estudantes de 18 a 25 anos da cidade de Córdoba, na Argentina, por meio de três experimentos com desenhos experimentais mistos. Especificamente, foram avaliadas diferentes técnicas para manipular o SS e seu efeito nas decisões econômicas: no Experimento 1 comparou-se o efeito de duas técnicas de manipulação do SS nas decisões do Jogo do Ultimato (JU) e do Ditador (JD); no Experimento 2 analisou-se o efeito do SS nos mesmos jogos, incluindo a orientação de valores sociais (SVO) e o status social subjetivo (SES) como covariáveis e, no Experimento 3, indagou-se o papel do SS, da SVO e do SES no JD e no Ditador de Tomar (do inglês, Dictator Taking Game). Nos três experimentos observou-se que o SS não teve efeito nas decisões dos jogos. Não obstante, evidenciou-se maior rejeição (Exp. 1: p < .001, n 2 p = .72; Exp. 2: p < .001, n 2 p = .65) e valência negativa para as ofertas injustas do que para as justas (Exp. 2: p < .001). Além disso, descobriu-se que quanto maior a pró-socialidade, maior a quantidade ofertada no JD (Exp. 2: p < .05) e que no JDT se oferece mais dinheiro do que no JD (Exp. 3: p = .01). Os resultados observados evidenciam que o efeito do SS nas respostas comportamentais não é robusto, por isso se destaca a importância de continuar investigando seu papel em tais decisões.

Resumen Los recursos son usualmente distribuidos de manera inequitativa en función del estatus social (ES) de las personas, razón por la cual diversos investigadores utilizan experimentos para explicar el rol del ES en las decisiones económicas; sin embargo, las diversas formas de inducir el ES han generado resultados contradictorios. En el presente trabajo se investigó el efecto del ES en la distribución de los recursos monetarios en estudiantes de 18 a 25 años de la ciudad de Córdoba, Argentina, por medio de tres experimentos con diseños experimentales mixtos. Específicamente, se evaluaron distintas técnicas para manipular el ES y su efecto en las decisiones económicas: en el Experimento 1 se comparó el efecto de dos técnicas de manipulación del ES en las decisiones del Juego del Ultimátum (JU) y del Dictador (JD); en el Experimento 2 se analizó el efecto del ES en los mismos juegos, incluyendo la orientación de valores sociales (SVO) y el estatus social subjetivo (SES) como covariables; y en el Experimento 3 se indagó el rol del ES, de la SVO y del ESS en el JD y en el Dictador de Tomar (JDT). En los tres experimentos se observó que el ES no tuvo efecto en las decisiones de los juegos. No obstante, se evidenció mayor rechazo (Exp. 1: p < .001, n 2 p = .72; Exp. 2: p < .001, n 2 p = .65) y valencia negativa para las ofertas injustas que para las justas (Exp. 2: p < .001). Además, se encontró que a mayor prosocialidad, mayor cantidad ofertada en el JD (Exp. 2: p < .05), y que en el JDT se ofrece más dinero que en el JD (Exp. 3: p = .01). Los resultados observados evidencian que el efecto del ES en las respuestas comportamentales no es robusto, por lo que se destaca la importancia de continuar investigando su rol en dichas decisiones.

Men, Women, and Economic Changes: Social Representations of the Economic Crisis / Hombres, mujeres y cambios económicos: representaciones sociales de la crisis económica

Resumen La crisis económica actual ha sido un fenómeno nuevo e inesperado; es parte del sistema capitalista, bancario y económico que ha sido conocido hasta el año 2008. La crisis ha llevado a los bancos, los Estados, las instituciones internacionales, así como a las personas del común, a ver profundos cambios en sus representaciones sobre la economía. En este escenario, se plantea la pregunta: ¿cómo los hombres y las mujeres de estratos sociales diferentes afrontan el fenómeno complejo y desconocido de la crisis económica? ¿El género y el estatus social justifican diferentes significados atribuidos a la crisis, sus causas y consecuencias? En el presente artículo se elige la teoría de las representaciones sociales para estudiar el papel del género y el nivel educativo en la producción de las representaciones de la crisis. Se presentan resultados de encuestas realizadas en el sur de Italia (N = 120), los cuales revelan que tanto el género como el nivel educativo de las personas marcan diferencias en la forma de definir y afrontar la crisis. Por un lado, los participantes de alto nivel definen la crisis en términos más abstractos que los participantes de bajo nivel. Por otra parte, los hombres de alto nivel mantienen un estado de coping más proactivo con la crisis que los otros participantes, especialmente mujeres. La discusión se enfoca en el papel de la teoría de la representación social entendiendo la relación entre género, estatus y comportamiento económico, aportando ideas sobre cómo la igualdad de género puede ser mejorada.

Abstract The current economic crisis has been a new and unexpected phenomenon; it is part of the capitalist banking and economic system that has been known until 2008. The crisis has led to banks, states, international institutions, as well as common people, changing profoundly their representations about the economy. In this scenario, some questions arise: how do men and women of different social status face the complex and unknown phenomenon of the economic crisis? Do gender and social status justify the different meanings attributed to the crisis, to its causes and its consequences? When confronted with an external threat like the economic crisis, people draw on social representations to provide meaning to that unfamiliar situation. Through media and interpersonal communication, social groups produce naive theories that improve familiarity with an unexpected and distressing phenomenon. In order to analyze these lay theories elaborated though daily economic thinking and acting, this research has been conducted using Social Representation Theory and its methodological approaches. This theory, in fact, contributes to our understanding of the societal process of sense making when an unexperienced external shock affects society. It offers a way to understand economic phenomena's impact on social groups. Social representations (SRs) serve the purpose of making the unfamiliar become familiar, and the unusual become usual, as well as to provide orientation in times of change. In this sense, in this article, social representations theory is used to examine the role of gender and educational status in the production of representations of the crisis. Presented findings came from a survey carried out in Southern Italy (N = 120) revealing status and gender differences in the ways people define the crisis and cope with it. Participants were asked to order the first most important five statements and the first least important statements, among a list of 15 (according to the rule of a multiple of 3) to code every item with a score of 1 (less characteristic), 3 (more characteristic), or 2 (not chosen). Every Questionnaire of Characterization was created starting from social descriptions and explanations of the crisis, identified in a previous study. They covered every sub-dimension of the content (complementary to the structure) of the social representation of the crisis, such as: cognitive-evaluative aspects about the representation's structure (central and peripheral elements); descriptive-defining aspects of the representation; informative sources and interaction networks; level of involvement/implication with the object; relationship between representation and social practices; perceptions, attributions and categorizations (causes, responsibilities, duration/evolution, solutions, positive implications, the EU's role). In this paper, we will only consider the answers related to the following dimensions: crisis definitions, strategies to tackle the crisis and social practices related to the crisis. The analysis of the data was carried out primarily using Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA). In this analysis, in order to uncover the objectification and anchoring processes, we considered the interaction of status and gender as an illustrative variable. These findings were further substantiated with the use of Discriminant analysis. The social anchoring of social representations of the economic crisis is influenced by gender and social status. Nevertheless, the difference in status modifies the stereotypical dimensions, also coherently with predictions derived from gender role theory about the reduction of the impact of gender stereotypes when men and women occupy similar social positions. On the one hand, high-status participants defined the crisis in more abstract terms than low-status participants. On the other hand, high-status men hold a more proactive style of coping with the crisis than other participants, especially women. The discussion focuses on the role of social representations theory in understanding the relationships between gender, status and economic behavior, providing insights into how gender equality might be improved.

Variables psicológicas comunes en la violencia escolar entre iguales y la violencia filio-parental: un estudio cualitativo / Psychological variables common in school violence between peers and filial-parental violence: a qualitative study / Variáveis psicológicas comuns na violência escolar entre iguais e a violência filio-parental: um estudo qualitativo

Resumen Objetivo: conocer de manera conjunta la influencia que, sobre la Violencia Escolar (VE) y la Violencia Filio-Parental (VFP), ejercen ciertos indicadores de ajuste individual (empatía y autoestima) y de tipo social (estatus social y relación con los iguales). Método: se llevó a cabo un estudio cualitativo con adolescentes, padres, profesorado y técnicos de centros de menores. Resultados: para la mayoría de los sujetos participantes, los acosadores/agresores de ambos estudios presentan baja autoestima y dificultades empáticas. Sin embargo, la VE proporciona estatus y aceptación social por parte del grupo de pares, mientras que la VFP genera rechazo, por lo que tiende a mantenerse oculta. Conclusiones: los agresores hacia los progenitores buscan la aceptación de los pares a través de conductas violentas en el entorno escolar, un aspecto que daría lugar a que coexistan al mismo tiempo las conductas de agresión en los ámbitos familiar y escolar.

Abstract Objective: getting to know jointly the influence exerted on School Violence ("Violencia Escolar "VE") and Filial-Parental Violence ("VFP") by certain indicators of both individual adjustment (empathy and self-esteem) and social type (social status and relationship with peers). Method: a qualitative study was carried out among probation centers/juvenile facility's adolescents, parents, teaching staff and technicians. Results: To most participants, bullies / aggressors in both studies reveal low self-esteem and empathic difficulties. However, VE provides them with some kind of status and social acceptance from their group of peers, while VFP generates rejection; therefore, it tends to be hidden. Conclusions: aggressors against parents seek the acceptance of peers through violent behaviors in the school environment, this being an aspect that would lead to the coexistence of aggressive conducts both within the family and in the school environment.

Resumo Objetivo: conhecer conjuntamente a influência que, na Violência Escolar (VE) e a Violência Filio-Parental (VFP), exercem determinados indicadores do ajuste individual (empatia e autoestima) e do tipo social (status social e relação com iguais). Método: um estudo qualitativo com adolescentes, pais, equipe de funcionários de ensino e técnicos dos centros dos menores foi realizado. Resultados: para a maioria dos mais dos sujeitos participantes, os acossadores/agressores de ambos os estudos apresentam baixa autoestima e dificuldades empáticas. Não obstante, a VE fornece o status e a aceitação social na parte do grupo dos pares, enquanto que VFP gera a rejeição, razão porque tende a permanecer oculta. Conclusões: os agressores para os progenitores procuram a aceitação dos pares através das condutas violentas no ambiente escolar, um aspecto que causa que as condutas da agressão coexistam ao mesmo tempo nos âmbitos familiar e escolar.

The Role of Socioeconomic Position in Determining Tooth Loss in Elderly Costa Rican: Findings from the CRELES Cohort

bjective: Differences in health status between socioeconomic groups continue to challenge epidemiological research. To evaluate health inequalities in tooth loss, using indicators of socioeconomic position (education level, occupation and subjective economic situation), in a large representative sample of elderly Costa Ricans, can contribute to conceive better adapted public health interventions. Methods: Data are from the Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study (CRELES Pre-1945), a longitudinal study of a nationally representative sample of elders. 2827 participants were included in the study using data from the first wave conducted in 2005, and analyzed cross-sectionally. The sample was imputed for missing data using a multiple imputation model. Tooth loss was self-reported and informed about the quantity of missing teeth. Information on participant's socioeconomic factors was collected via a questionnaire, including three measures approaching socioeconomic position: education level, occupation and subjective economic situation. Additional variables were included in the multivariate analyses as potential confounders. Results: Tooth loss was found to be strongly socially patterned, using variables characterizing socioeconomic position, mainly education level, occupational status and subjective economic situation. Conclusions: To highlight how socioeconomic position relates to tooth loss, can allow a better understanding of the origins of the social gradient in oral health, to tackle the most common chronic diseases across the world.

bjetivo: Las diferencias en el estado de salud entre los grupos socioeconómicos continúan desafiando la investigación epidemiológica. El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar las inequidades sociales en salud con respecto a la pérdida de piezas dentales, utilizando distintos indicadores de la posición socioeconómica (nivel de educación, ocupación y situación económica subjetiva). Se utilizó un amplio estudio representativo de la población de adultos mayores costarricenses. Este trabajo podría contribuir a concebir intervenciones en salud pública más adaptadas para el país. Métodos: Los datos provienen del Estudio de Longevidad y Envejecimiento Saludable de Costa Rica (CRELES Pre-1945), un estudio longitudinal representativo de la población de personas adultas mayores. La muestra, analizada transversalmente, incluyó 2827 participantes usando datos de la primera ronda realizada en 2005. La muestra fue imputada para tomar en cuenta los datos faltantes usando un modelo de imputación múltiple. La pérdida de piezas dentales fue declarada como la cantidad de dientes perdidos en el momento de la entrevista. La información sobre los factores socioeconómicos de los participantes se recopiló a través de un cuestionario, incluyendo tres medidas que aproximaban la posición socioeconómica: nivel educativo, ocupación y situación económica subjetiva. Otras variables fueron incluídas en el modelo de regresión múltiple, como potenciales factores de confusión. Resultados: Se encontró que la pérdida de piezas dentales estaba fuertemente asociada a las todas las variables socioeconómicas analizadas, principalmente el nivel educativo, la ocupación y la situación económica subjetiva. Conclusiones: Mostrar cómo la posición socioeconómica se relaciona con la pérdida de piezas dentales podría permitir una mejor comprensión de los orígenes del gradiente social en la salud oral. Esto permitiría la concepción de mejores políticas en salud oral para hacer frente a estas enfermedades crónicas, reconocidas como las más comunes en el mundo.

Atribuciones de culpa a partir del estatus del testigo y la intencionalidad / Attributions of guilt from witness status and intentionality

En esta investigación se evaluó el efecto del estatus social de los testigos y la intencionalidad de la persona sobre las atribuciones de culpa que realizan los individuos. Participaron 178 estudiantes universitarios y se utilizaron 4 historias que describen un evento de fraude en un ambiente académico, variando la intencionalidad del sospechoso (intencional - no intencional) y el estatus social del testigo (alto - bajo). Los resultados mostraron que no existe un efecto del estatus social y de la intencionalidad en las atribuciones de culpa. Los resultados son interpretados a la luz de estudios previos sobre atribución de culpa con el propósito de incorporar elementos nuevos como las creencias previas de los participantes e información que acompañe y resalte el estatus de los testigos para guiar las investigaciones futuras.

The effect of the social status of the witnesses and the intent of the person, on the powers of guilt made by individuals were evaluated in this research. 178 college students participated and 4 stories that describe an event of fraud in a learning environment were used, varying the suspect's intentionality (intentional -not intentional) and social status of the witness (high -low). The results showed that there is an effect of social status and intentionality attributions of guilt. Results are interpreted in light of previous studies on attribution of blame in order to incorporate new elements as prior beliefs of the participants and accompanying information and highlight the status of witnesses to guide future research.